“Make sure everyone, including family and employees, working around stored grain understands the hazards and proper safety procedures,” North Dakota State University Extension Service agricultural engineer Ken Hellevang says.

“Too many people ignore safety practices and suffer severe injury or death while working around grain,” he adds. “They get trapped in grain, tangled in auger flighting, or develop respiratory problems from exposure to grain dust and mould particles.”

Grain bin dangers

Never enter a bin while unloading grain or to break up a grain bridge. Flowing grain will pull you into the grain mass, burying you within seconds.

Stop the grain-conveying equipment and use the “lock-out/tag-out” procedures to secure it before entering the bin. Use a key-type padlock to lock the conveyor switch in the “off” position to assure that the equipment does not start automatically or someone does not start it accidentally.

Bridging occurs when grain is high in moisture content, mouldy or in poor condition. The kernels stick together and form a crust. A cavity will form under the crust when grain is removed from the bin. The crust isn’t strong enough to support a person’s weight, so anyone who walks on it will fall into the cavity and be buried under several feet of grain.

“To determine if the grain is bridged, look for a funnel shape on the surface of the grain mass after some grain has been removed,” Hellevang advises. “If the grain surface appears undisturbed, the grain has bridged and a cavity has formed under the surface.”

Stay outside the bin and use a pole or other object to break the bridge loose.

If the grain flow stops when you’re removing it from the bin but the grain surface has a funnel shape and shows some evidence that grain has been flowing into the auger, a chunk of spoiled grain probably is blocking the flow. Entering the bin to break up the blockage will expose you to being buried in grain and tangled in the auger.

If grain has formed a vertical wall, try to break it up from the top of the bin with a long pole on a rope or through a door with a long pole. A wall of grain can collapse, or avalanche, without warning, knocking you over and burying you.

Follow recommended storage management procedures to minimize the potential for crusting or bridging and chunks of grain blocking unloading.

Also, never enter a grain bin alone. Have at least two people at the bin to assist in case of problems. Use a safety harness when entering a bin.

Rescuing a trapped person

If someone gets trapped:

• Shut off all grain-moving equipment.
• Contact your local emergency rescue service or fire department.
• Ventilate the bin using the fan.
• Form a retaining wall around the person using a rescue tube or plywood, sheet metal or other material to keep grain from flowing toward the person, then remove grain from around the individual. Walking on the grain pushes more grain onto the trapped person.
• Don’t try to pull a person out of grain. The grain exerts tremendous forces, so trying to pull someone out could damage the person’s spinal column or cause other damage.
• Cut holes in the bin sides to remove grain if the person is submerged. Use a cutting torch, metal-cutting power saw or air chisel to cut at least two V- or U-shaped holes on opposite sides or more holes equally spaced around the bin.

Grain flowing from just one hole may injure the trapped person and cause the bin to collapse.

Dust, mould pose health hazards

Even low-level exposure to dust and mould can cause symptoms such as wheezing, a sore throat, congestion, and nasal or eye irritation.

Higher concentrations can cause allergic reactions and trigger asthma episodes and other problems. Typical symptoms include shortness of breath; burning eyes; blurry vision; light sensitivity; a dry, hacking cough; and skin irritation.

People may experience one or a combination of these symptoms.

In rare cases, severe symptoms, such as headaches, aches and pains, and/or fever, may develop. People’s sensitivity varies based on the amount and type of mould. In addition, certain types of moulds can produce mycotoxins, which increase the potential for health hazards from exposure to mould spores.

The minimum protection for anyone working around mouldy grain should be an N-95-rated face mask, according to Hellevang. This mask has two straps to hold it firmly to the face and a metal strip over the nose to create a tight seal. A nuisance-dust mask with a single strap will not provide adequate protection, he says.

Other dangers

Getting tangled in the unloading sweep auger is another major hazard.

Entanglement typically results in lost feet, hands, arms, legs and frequently death due to the severe damage.

Although you shouldn’t enter a bin with an energized sweep auger, it may be necessary in some instances, Hellevang says. All sweep augers should have guards that protect against contact with moving parts at the top and back. The only unguarded portion of the sweep auger should be the front point of operation.

If someone must go into the bin, make sure to have a rescue-trained and equipped observer positioned outside the storage bin. Use a safety switch that will allow the auger to operate only while the worker is in contact with the switch.

Never use your hands or legs to manipulate the sweep auger while it’s in operation. The auger should have a bin stop device that prevents the sweep auger from making uncontrolled rotations.

For more information, check out the NDSU publication Caught in the Grain on the NDSU website.

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“The first 60 to 90 days post-calving is the most nutritionally demanding period in the production cycle of a cow and arguably one of the most important in achieving production goals,” says Janna Kincheloe, the North Dakota State University Extension Service’s livestock systems specialist at the Hettinger Research Extension Center.

Peak milk production typically occurs about 60 days after calving in mature cows and requirements are highest at this time. Nutritional stress caused by calving and/or lactation can have a substantial impact on productivity.

A cow uses the total nutrients (water, energy, protein, vitamins and minerals) it consumes each day based on these biological priorities: maintenance, growth, lactation and reproduction. Because reproduction is lowest on the priority list, it is one of the first factors affected if nutrition is inadequate between calving and breeding.

Research indicates that pregnancy rates will be reduced when cows have body condition scores of less than five at calving and breeding. This is particularly true for high-producing cows and two- and three-year-olds that still have requirements for growth.

“A reasonable estimate of milking ability is necessary to ensure that available feed resources can support the cow herd,” Kincheloe says. “If milk production is too high for a given environment, negative impacts on cow performance and calf weaning weight will reduce profit potential.”

Expected progeny differences (EPDs) for maternal milk production, as reported by breed associations, are expressed as differences in pounds of calf weaned due to milk production of the dam. The livestock industry has seen a strong genetic trend of increased milk production in nearly all beef cattle breeds during the past 20 years, with the average commercial cow estimated to produce about 25 pounds of milk each day during peak lactation.

While directly measuring milk production in a range or pasture is challenging, producers can use calf weaning weight records as an indirect estimate. Kincheloe suggests producers keep in mind that environmental conditions and other genetic traits such as growth potential also impact weaning weights.

Understanding how nutrient requirements of beef cows vary based on weight and stage of production is important. For example, a 1,200-pound cow at peak milk production of 20 pounds two months after calving requires about three pounds of crude protein a day, while the same cow producing 30 pounds of milk requires nearly 3.75 pounds of crude protein a day.

The timing of calving, age of the dam, and forage quality and availability will determine the most appropriate feeding strategy.

Native range generally can meet lactating cows’ nutrient requirements in the northern Great Plains during peak forage production in late May and early June, Kincheloe says. However, cows that have calved prior to the first part of April will reach peak milk production before most forage species will be able to provide necessary nutrients.

In addition, turning cows out to pasture too early will reduce forage health and production, as well as animal performance. Therefore, producers often need to supply higher-quality forages and/or supplements in early spring to support cows’ increased requirements during lactation.

A variety of protein and energy supplements are available to help fill nutritional gaps from forage. Kincheloe recommends supplements containing at least 20 per cent protein when feeding low-quality forage (seven per cent or less crude protein). These supplements include feeds such as alfalfa hay, soybean meal, commercial supplements and distillers grains.

The appropriate supplement for a given situation should be evaluated based on nutrient content of the basal diet, as well as price and availability of the supplement.

The NDSU Extension publication Comparing Value of Feedstuffs on the NDSU website can help producers compare supplements on a cost per pound of nutrient basis.

“Supplying adequate nutrition for lactating cows is extremely critical in ensuring production goals are met,” Kincheloe says. “It is important to develop rations that can economically meet this challenge, particularly when feed prices are high. Producers should keep a close eye on milk production to minimize feed costs and ensure a good match between their environment and the genetic base of the cow herd.”

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“Field losses, splits and cracked seed coats increase as moisture content decreases,” he says. “Shatter losses have been shown to increase significantly when seed moisture falls below 11 per cent or when mature beans undergo multiple wetting and drying cycles.”

Because harvest losses increase dramatically when the moisture content is below 11 per cent, harvesting during high humidity such as early morning or late evening or damp conditions may reduce shatter loss, Hellevang notes.

Many times, the discount for delivering beans with a moisture content in excess of 13 per cent may be less than the discount for shatter losses from harvesting overly dry soybeans. He recommends that producers begin harvesting at 14 or 15 per cent moisture to reduce the amount harvested below 11 per cent.

Moisture content can increase by several points with an overnight dew or it can decrease by several points during a day with low humidity and windy conditions. Avoid harvesting when beans are driest, such as afternoons, to maintain moisture and reduce shattering losses.

Changing colour

“Unfortunately, there has not been adequate research examining if immature green soybeans will change colour in storage,” Hellevang says. “Limited studies indicate that green soybeans will tend to stay green in storage. They do not lose their internal green colour caused by chlorophyll, although the surface colour may lighten or mottle somewhat after weeks or months in storage.”

Field losses need to be balanced against the discounts for green seeds in determining when to harvest. Another possibility is harvesting some of the field and leaving the portion with the green soybeans unharvested, he says.

Equalizing moisture content

Soybean moisture variation may lead to storage and marketing losses. Operating an aeration fan will help move moisture from wet beans to drier beans. Air going past wet beans picks up moisture, and that moisture will transfer to drier beans as the air goes past them.

Moisture movement will be minimal without aeration airflow. Hellevang suggests initially running the fan longer than is required to cool the grain to even out the moisture content. The moisture will not be all the same, but it should become more uniform.

Soybeans at 11 per cent moisture have similar storage characteristics as wheat or corn at 13.5 to 14 per cent moisture, so an allowable storage time (AST) chart for cereal grains can be used to estimate allowable storage times for soybeans.

For example, soybeans at 16 per cent moisture content would be similar to cereal grains at about 19 per cent moisture, so soybeans would be expected to have an AST of about 70 days at 50°. The AST is reduced to 35 days at 60° and extended to about 140 days at 40°.

Drying options

The recommended maximum moisture content for air-drying is about 16 per cent moisture, with an airflow rate of at least one cubic foot per minute per bushel (cfm/bu.) during October. The amount of natural-air drying that will occur in late October and November is limited in northern states.

The equilibrium moisture content of soybeans for air-drying at 40 F (4.5 C) and 70 per cent relative humidity is 13.7 per cent, but even with an airflow rate of one cfm/bu., drying soybeans with 16 per cent moisture will take about 70 days. Adding supplemental heat to raise the air temperature by 5 F (2.4 C) will permit drying the soybeans to about 11 per cent moisture in about 55 days.

Only about one-half of the beans would be expected to dry by mid-November, when outdoor temperatures become too cold to dry efficiently. Adding heat would cause the beans on the bottom of the bin to be dried to a lower moisture content and it would increase drying speed only slightly. Cool the soybeans to between 20 and 30° for winter storage and complete drying in the spring. Hellevang recommends starting to dry when outdoor temperatures are averaging about 40°.

Increasing the airflow rate will increase the drying speed. However, the fan horsepower required to achieve the higher airflow rate becomes excessive unless the grain depth is very shallow.

For a soybean depth of 22 feet, the rule of thumb is that each 1,000 bushels of soybeans will need about one horsepower of fan to achieve an airflow rate of one cfm/bu. Achieving an airflow rate of 1.5 cfm/bu. will require about 2-1/2 horsepower per 1,000 bushels, and an airflow rate of two cfm/bu. will need about five horsepower per 1,000 bushels.

The type of fan greatly affects the airflow provided per horsepower, so use a fan selection software program such as the one developed by the University of Minnesota. It is available on the NDSU grain drying and storage website (https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying).

Soybeans can be dried in a high-temperature dryer, but the temperature needs to be limited to minimize damage to the beans. Refer to the manufacturer’s recommendations for maximum drying temperature. Typically, the maximum drying temperature for non-food soybeans is about 130 F (54.5 C). Even at that temperature, some skins and beans will be cracked.

One study found that with a dryer temperature of 130 F (54.5 C), 50 to 90 per cent of the skins were cracked and 20 to 70 per cent of the beans were cracked. Another study found that 30 per cent of the seed coats were cracked if the drying air relative humidity was 30 per cent, and 50 per cent of the skins and about eight per cent of the beans were cracked at 20 per cent relative humidity.

The relative humidity is reduced by one-half for each 20° that the air is warmed. Therefore, if air at 40 F (4.5 F) and 80 per cent relative humidity is warmed to 60°, the relative humidity is reduced to 40 per cent, and if it is heated to 80°, the relative humidity is reduced to 20 per cent. Monitor the amount of damage occurring during drying and regulate the temperature to obtain the acceptable amount of damage.

Most dryer fires occur due to trash accumulating in the dryer. Monitor the grain flow in the dryer and periodically clean the dryer to reduce the potential for a fire.

Food soybeans and seed beans must not have damage to the seed coat, so natural-air or low-temperature drying is the preferred drying method, Hellevang says.

For more information, do an internet search for NDSU soybean drying.

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Coccidiosis is an intestinal disease that affects several animal species. In cattle, it may produce clinical symptoms in animals from a month to one year of age, but it can infect all age groups.

Coccidia is a protozoan parasite that has the ability to multiply rapidly and cause clinical disease.

“Coccidia are very host specific; that is, only cattle coccidia will cause disease in cattle,” Stokka says. “Other species-specific coccidia will not cause disease in cattle.”

The major damage to calves is the result of the rapid multiplication of the parasite in the intestinal wall and the subsequent rupture of the cells of the intestinal lining.

Several stages of multiplication occur before the final stage, the oocyst (egg), is passed in the feces. Oocysts are extremely resistant to environmental stress and are difficult to remove from the environment completely. Oocysts must undergo a final process called sporulation before they are infective again.

Oocysts frequently contaminate feed and water. When the sporulated oocysts are ingested by other animals, they start their life cycle over in the new host.

Symptoms

In young (three to six weeks of age), suckling calves, clinical signs of coccidiosis may develop following stressful events such as weather changes, or if the calves are in unsanitary conditions.

“Symptoms or signs of coccidiosis will depend on the stage of the disease at the time of observation,” says Karl Hoppe, livestock systems specialist at NDSU’s Carrington Research Extension Center.

In general, coccidiosis affects the intestinal tract and creates symptoms associated with it. In mild cases, calves only have watery diarrhea, but in most cases, blood is present in the feces. Straining, along with rapid dehydration, weight loss and anorexia (off feed), may be evident.

Animals that survive for 10 to 14 days may recover; however, permanent damage may occur. The lesions associated with coccidiosis that are found after death generally are confined to the cecum, colon, ileum and rectum.

Laboratory findings should be correlated with clinical signs for a diagnosis because other infectious diseases such as salmonella and bovine viral diarrhea virus also may lead to blood in the stool, Stokka notes.

The susceptibility of animals to coccidiosis varies.

“Coccidiosis frequently is referred to as an opportunist, which is a disease that will develop when other stress factors are present or in the young calves when exposure to the oocysts is overwhelming,” Stokka says.

“The life cycle of coccidiosis in calves is approximately 21 days,” he adds. “This means that if a three-week-old calf is showing signs and symptoms of coccidiosis, the calf was exposed to the oocysts at birth. The logical conclusion to young calf coccidiosis is that calving grounds are highly contaminated.”

Treatment

Infected animals must be treated for the infection and to correct dehydration. Producers should select the proper drugs in consultation with their veterinarian. Sulfa drugs and a therapeutic dose of amprolium are available to treat coccidiosis. Antibiotics may be necessary if secondary bacterial infections are suspected.

Products also are available for treating the entire group of calves, but the logistics of medicating all the calves in beef herds is difficult, Stokka says. Treatment and prevention are most effective when started early.

Prevention

Stokka and Hoppe suggest these steps to prevent coccidiosis:

• Move calving grounds to a clean area free of contamination.
• Increase the amount of space per cow during the calving season.
• Feed an additive that can reduce the presence of coccidia.

“Feeding a coccidiostat (decoquinate) or an ionophore (monensin or lasalocid) to the herd prior to and during calving may help,” Hoppe says. “Be sure to follow label claims because monensin and lasalocid have slightly different label claims.

“Feeding an ionophore to the cows for reducing the overall coccidia parasites present in the environment also has the benefit of improving feed efficiency,” he adds.

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SCN, a round worm that parasitizes roots of soybean and can reduce yields anywhere from 15 to 30 per cent before ground symptoms are present, has been in the neighbouring state for at least a decade and much longer in other parts of the U.S., said Greg Endres, area cropping specialist with North Dakota State University Extension Service, while speaking at a Northstar Genetics’ grower information day in Morris March 23.

Endres shared survey data showing the incidence and evidence of SCN’s steady migration in a northward and westward direction from the southeastern portion of the state. Maps reveal its documented presence in North Dakota counties including Cavalier, Towner, Rolette and Renville. It’s at a point where it’s likely crossing into Manitoba, Endres said.

“I can only speculate but there is very high probability that SCN exists in Manitoba.”

The good news is that there’s still plenty of time to monitor and manage the disease here.

• Read more: Agronomy will be key to growing soybean acreage

That essentially means not waiting to see the above-ground symptoms present before deciding to do something about it, he said.

SCN which causes yellowing in the plants can be confused with drown-outs or iron chlorosis. The right approaches include a mix of basic prevention and continuous monitoring with soil testing, the specialist said.

Prevention means keeping it out using clean equipment. But those activities in reality are “easier said than done,” said Endres, adding that wind, water and waterfowl commonly transport the disease.

It’s monitoring that’s key to identify SCN presence and the far most effective way to detect it is by soil testing. The recommendation is to do this around harvest time, or just before and take a soil sample from right in the root system of the plant where you have the best chance of finding SCN eggs. Sampling is best done on suspected areas such as field entrances, fencerows, flooded areas or alkaline areas.

“Soil sampling is by far the best way to give us an early alert so SCN can be effectively managed,” he said.

Managing SCN involves avoiding tight rotations, including edible beans, and using resistant varieties.

Crop rotation can help to reduce the egg levels but be mindful that rotation won’t eradicate SCN, said Endres.

There are also seed treatments available and more products are being tested and entering the marketplace all the time. But the debate continues as to how effective these are, Endres said.

“We don’t want those used alone as a strategy for cyst, but in combination with resistant varieties they may be useful.”

Other diseases

While SCN is a new disease, it’s far from the only one growers grapple with.

Endres said phytophthora, a disease that develops with wet and warm soil conditions is North Dakota’s No. 1 root rot concern.

“And it probably will be yours sometime in the future,” he added.

Field scouting is very important, said Endres. “The disease can occur throughout the soybean growing season.

Signs of phytophthora are water-soaked lesions at the base of the stem which will move upwards. Another sign it may be present is if the plant is dead but the leaves remain attached. It will occur in patches or sometimes single plants, he added.

Varietal selection is the key management strategy for phytophthora.

“The key is to use varieties with resistant genes as a major way to manage this disease,” he said. Seed company and university information includes resistance genes present (or not) in soybean varieties.

“There are many different races of phytophthora so if the disease is present at substantial levels in the field, then it would be good in the future to change varieties, that have a different type of resistance in them, also selecting varieties having good field tolerance to the disease.”

Endres said there is one race of phytophthora present right now in N.D. for which there are no genes to combat it. It’s been detected in the extreme southeastern portion of the state.

“We’re concerned about that.”

There are effective seed treatments for phytophthora, but protection only lasts during early plant establishment, not season long.

Sclerotinia

Endres also spoke about the use of fungicides and how various row spacing scenarios can impact sclerotinia or white mould.

Growers should be aware that only fairly high levels of the disease merit the use of fungicides from an economics perspective, he said. With dryland soybean, the disease does not consistently occur each year in N.D. at levels warranting economic use of fungicides.

It is challenging figuring if fungicide should be applied or not because incidence level must be predicted prior to disease symptoms present in the field, Endres said.

A reference he offered growers at the Morris meeting is that a 20 to 40 per cent sclerotinia incidence in a non-treated check would indicate it would have been economical to use a fungicide

Endres also presented detailed research related to row spacing to manage for sclerotinia. Commonly, growers will opt for the wider 30-inch rows to reduce disease incidence, he said. However, wide-row soybean without white mould will have lower yield potential across years.

“With the disease and narrow rows, the disease likely will bring yield potential down but probably just to the yield level of the wide rows without sclerotinia,” he said. “It’s a balance you must consider.”

Researchers in N.D. recommend, with a potential of moderate sclerotina incidence, going with 21- or 22-inch rows.

“I really question going to wide rows only because of sclerotinia management because in the long run I would speculate that you’re going to lose yield and ultimately profit.”

More information can be found on the website of the North Central Soybean Research Program at www.ncsrp.com/.

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“Some have even treated more than once and are still seeing the effects of lice in their livestock,” says Ashley Ueckert, a North Dakota State University Extension Service agent in Golden Valley County.

Unfortunately, lice populations are much more difficult to control than they were 10 years ago, according to Gerald Stokka, NDSU Extension veterinarian.

“We cannot be sure of the reason for reduced lice control, but the possibility of resistance to our control products is certainly on the minds of our veterinary practitioners,” he says. “The effectiveness of the pioneer avermectin (macrocyclic lactone) products such as Ivermectin and Dectomax have led them to be used extensively.

“With the development of the ‘pour-on’ products, along with the generic products, the use increased, and in some cases, these products were used multiple times per year,” he adds. “So whether we are dealing with resistance in lice or less efficacy at the appropriate dose, the result is the same — a lack of control.”

Here are a few options Stokka and Ueckert recommend for helping curb the lice outbreaks:

• Leave the cattle alone. In many cases, the best solution may be to just leave the cattle untreated. Lice populations will begin to decrease in activity rapidly as the weather warms.
• Work with your veterinarian to determine the type of lice you are treating. The likely culprits are the biting lice. Biting lice feed on the dander and scurf on the cattle’s skin and are controlled more effectively with a topical treatment. In contrast, sucking lice feed on blood and serum from the animal and are controlled more effectively with an injectable product that gets into the blood.
• Use injectable and topical treatment to control both types of lice.

“When looking at topical treatments to treat biting lice, it may be in your best interest to look for a name-brand product and to use one with a higher-volume dosage,” Stokka suggests. “Biting lice will be controlled more effectively by the parasiticide if they come in contact with it; thus, the higher-dosage products will give you more coverage on the animal and more area for the lice to come in contact with the product.”

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The North Dakota Department of Agriculture and North Dakota State University Extension Service are advising farmers to scout new conservation plantings for Palmer amaranth, a very aggressive weed that has plagued cropland production in the U.S. South and Midwest.

Palmer amaranth is a type of pigweed that has devastated crops in many states. In some areas, herbicide costs have more than doubled, while producers have not obtained complete control of the weed.

In Iowa, Minnesota and other states, Palmer amaranth recently has been found in many counties where native seed mixes used for pollinator or wildlife habitats inadvertently contained Palmer amaranth seed.

In Georgia, most cotton acres have to be hand-weeded because the weed no longer can be controlled with glyphosate.

“Landowners are encouraged to check their fields and contact the North Dakota Department of Agriculture or NDSU Extension Service if a plant is suspected to be Palmer amaranth,” said Brian Jenks, North Central Research Extension Center weed scientist. “The plant should be growing and identifiable prior to hard frosts.”

Palmer amaranth has several unique characteristics that make it hard to control. In optimum conditions, Palmer amaranth has a rapid growth rate, and can grow two to three inches per day and reach six to eight feet tall. One plant can produce up to one million seeds.

While most weeds have a short emergence window in the spring, Palmer amaranth can emerge throughout the growing season. One of the most troubling characteristics is that it is very prone to developing resistance to herbicides.

Some populations are known to be resistant to at least five different herbicide modes of action, including glyphosate.

Palmer amaranth’s distinguishing characteristics are:

• It has very little hair on the leaves and stem, compared with redroot pigweed.
• The petioles are typically as long or longer than the leaf blade.
• It is dioecious, meaning it has separate male and female plants.
• The female plants have spiny bracts at the leaf axils.
• Flowering heads are unbranched and one to two feet long.
• The heads of the female plant are sharp (spiny) to the touch, while the male heads are soft.

Given the history of Palmer amaranth in other locations, learning to identify it so new infestations can be controlled is important for farmers and agronomists, Jenks says.

“This weed is a game changer and will be controlled only by a zero-tolerance policy,” he adds. “Landowners should confirm that any purchased seed does not contain Palmer amaranth.”

For more information on Palmer amaranth, including how to identify it, go to www.ag.ndsu.edu/weeds.

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Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, can produce toxins that are harmful to livestock, wildlife and people.

Blue-green algae often occur in stagnant ponds or dugouts with elevated nutrient levels, forming large colonies that appear as scum on or just below the water surface, according to Carl Dahlen, North Dakota State University Extension Service beef cattle specialist.

“With this early finding of blue-green algae, be sure to monitor livestock water sources throughout the summer and take immediate action to prevent cyanobacterial poisoning of livestock,” Dahlen says.

Live cyanobacteria are green and turn blue after they die and dry on the water surface or shoreline.

Cyanobacteria typically are a concern beginning in mid-July, says Brad Brummond, agriculture and natural resources Extension agent in Walsh County.

Blue-green algae’s toxicity depends on the species drinking the water, and the concentration and the amount of water ingested.

Cyanobacteria produce neuro and liver toxins, NDSU Extension veterinarian and livestock stewardship specialist Gerald Stokka says. Signs of neurotoxin poisoning usually appear within 20 minutes of ingestion.

In animals, symptoms include weakness, staggering, difficulty in breathing, convulsions and, ultimately, death. Animals affected by liver toxins may exhibit weakness, pale-coloured mucous membranes, mental derangement, bloody diarrhea and, ultimately, death. Typically, livestock are found dead before producers see symptoms.

Miranda Meehan, NDSU Extension livestock environmental stewardship specialist, recommends that if producers suspect cyanobacterial poisoning caused the death of livestock, they should check the edges of ponds for dead wildlife. Dead wildlife is an indication that cyanobacteria are in the water.

In addition, producers should collect a water sample from the suspected water source and submit it to either a public or commercial laboratory for testing.

Here are some ways producers can prevent cyanobacterial poisoning of livestock:

• Reduce the nutrient levels entering the water source by implementing a nutrient management plan or establishing buffer strips with perennial plant species.
• Create a designated drinking area where the risk of cyanobacteria is minimal.
• Fence off the pond and pump water from the pond to a water tank.
• Use or provide other water sources following periods of hot, dry weather.
• Add copper sulphate to the water if the water source has a history of algae blooms. Apply two pounds of copper sulphate per acre-foot of water, which is equal to a rate of eight pounds per million gallons.

Check out the NDSU Extension Service’s Cyanobacteria (Blue-green Algae) Poisoning publication for more information.

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“Cleaning the accumulated solids — sludge — from the septic tank is the most common, routine maintenance needed for most individual home sewage treatment systems,” says Tom Scherer, a water quality and irrigation expert.

One clue that a septic tank has too much accumulated sludge and other material is that it smells if you are standing downwind from the house sewer vent. Ridding it of sludge will help prevent septic system problems during the winter. Fixing a failed or poorly performing septic system in the winter is difficult and expensive.

Most tanks need cleaning about every three years, Scherer says. However, the actual timing will depend on the quantity of solids entering the tank. The tank may have to be cleaned every one or two years if the home has a garbage disposal and it is used regularly. Using a garbage disposal significantly increases a septic tank’s solids loading.

The tank’s main purposes are to separate solids from liquids, allow bacteria to break down the solids and store the non-degradable solids until they can be removed. The drainfield provides additional bacterial degradation of the effluent from the septic tank and allows the effluent to infiltrate the soil. The bacteria that do this work in the septic tank and drainfield are common soil bacteria.

As sewage breaks down in the tank, some solids settle to the bottom and others float to the top. This separation usually produces three distinct layers, which are:

• Top — Scum composed of cooking fats and oils, soap byproducts and products of decomposition are lighter than water and float to the top.
• Middle — This layer consists of water containing very small pieces of waste. It’s the effluent that is discharged to the drainfield.
• Bottom — Sludge composed of decomposition byproducts, and soil from clothes washing and other materials are heavier than water. On many farms, a fair portion of the sludge is the dirt that comes from washing clothes.

If you are not sure when the septic tank was pumped last, you can measure the depth of sludge in the tank to determine whether the tank needs to be cleaned.

To do that:

• Wrap three or four feet of white terry cloth or towelling, rough side out, around a wooden or metal pole. The pole should be long enough to reach to the bottom of the septic tank.
• Slowly push the pole to the bottom of the tank through an inspection pipe or the manhole. The best place to measure is under the inspection pipe at the inlet to the septic tank because the sludge layer will be thickest there.
• Turn the pole slowly three to five revolutions, let it sit for a minute, then slowly withdraw it.

Where the black particles cling to the rough cloth determines the sludge thickness. If the sludge is greater than 12 inches thick, have the tank cleaned, Scherer advises.

He also recommends that a licensed contractor pump the septic tank. Cleaning a tank is more than just pumping out the liquid. Pumping and back-flushing the liquid into the tank will break up the scum and sludge layers. The contractor then can pump the mixed contents from the tank and dispose of them in an approved method.

“Pumping a septic tank on a regular basis is much cheaper than using septic system additives and is much more effective,” Scherer says.

Septic system additives have been sold since the 1880s, and more than 120 products that claim to improve septic system operations are on the market. However, 80-plus years of research has not found evidence that they work, and some have been found to pollute groundwater.

Scherer suggests that if you put additives in your system, you should read the directions very carefully. Also make sure the additive is recommended for the problem you’ve noticed.

For more information on septic systems, check out the NDSU publication “Individual Home Sewage Treatment Systems.”

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“Reduced rainfall means less water from run-off into stock dams,” says John Dhuyvetter, area extension livestock specialist at the North Central Research Extension Center near Minot. “Stock ponds at lower water levels indicate a possible increase in total dissolved solids in the water.”

In spite of a lack of run-off from winter snowmelt or spring rains, most pastures have surface water from the past several years of a wet cycle. But without dilution from additional water, mineral content and salts may have started to concentrate from evaporation and ground salt migration.

“Good cattle production and health depend on the livestock having an adequate and safe water supply,” says Karl Hoppe, area extension livestock specialist at the Carrington Research Extension Center. “While quantity or shortage may be obvious, using a lab to analyze the water will help determine if the quality is acceptable.”

A number of factors can be analyzed to determine if water is suitable for cattle. One of the primary factors is total dissolved solids (TDS), or all of the dissolved minerals in the water. Mature cattle probably can tolerate TDS up to 15,000 parts per million (ppm) for a limited time, but continued use of water with TDS that high can affect their health and cause death, Dhuyvetter says. The National Academy of Sciences considers up to 3,000 ppm of TDS acceptable for cattle.

Sulphates are one of the dissolved solids that may affect livestock. Sulphates can cause a laxative effect, electrolyte imbalance and mineral tie-up. The acceptable limit is 500 ppm.

Nitrates are another dissolved solid of concern with cattle. Watersheds supplying water to ponds that have been fertilized heavily or are high in nitrogen might contribute to elevated nitrate concentrations and the potential for toxicity.

Salinity also could be a problem for cattle. With the lack of rain, groundwater evaporation is causing white saline areas to expand this spring. This is an indicator that livestock water supplies may be increasing in salt concentration.

High salt content may impact cattle’s water consumption, according to livestock environmental stewardship specialist Miranda Meehan.

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) poisoning may be a concern as well if drought persists into the summer. Algae blooms commonly occur on small, stagnant ponds that have high nutrient levels and warm water.

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